Organizational Behaviour and Organizational Practices

Question: Discuss about the Organizational Behaviour and Organizational Practices. Answer: Introduction The organizational behaviour is the process of studying the ways people react and behave with each others in the organization. It is helpful in creating an efficient working in the organization. The idea of the organizational behaviour is managing the workers using the scientific approach. The theories of organizational behaviour are used for maximizing the output. The Myers Briggs Profile, describes the systematic ways in which people differ from each other, it describes everyday lives of the people. It has four dimensions. The Big Five personality trait describes the personality traits and the relationship between the behaviour and personality, it has five domain traits dimensions that distinguishes the personality of one from the other. The McClelland needs analysis is an acquired theory of need that avoids the situation of low and high both the risks. The TKI is used to resolve the conflict situations that may arise within the organization (Bauer Erdogan, 2012). Brief review: The Myers Briggs theory, has four simple preferences to deal with, the preference of the individual and the situations that the individual prefers to deal with are: those preferences of the people and things, the facts and the reality, the logics and the truth and the lifestyle that i structured well. The theory discovers the ways in which the people are different from one another, the everyday lives of the people and the various situations of working. In the Myers Briggs theory, one style is preferred over other for each pair (Bauer Erdogan, 2012). The five factor theory or the personality trait theory is hierarchical, the five dimensions of the theory explains the various important ways in which the individuals differ in their motivational, emotional, interpersonal, attitudinal and experimental styles. The basis of the dimension truly discovers the turning point of the individuals personality, these dimension are the basis of the individuals understandings for themselves and the others. The theory also explains the phenomena that are used in the everyday lives of the people. The McClelland needs analysis theory reflects the specific needs that are acquired by the individuals over time and experiences of life. The needs are useful in motivation and effectiveness of the workers. These motivational needs are described in three types, the need for achievements, the need for affiliation and the need for power. These needs help to analyze the job functions and situations of the organization, the higher need for achievement of an individual focus on attainment of the goals that are challenging to the organization and the individual. The higher need for affiliation seeks to develop a harmonious relationship and prefers interpersonal relations. The need for power can be ascertained in two ways: the power that is personal and the power that is institutional. This need is authority motivated and is effective to make an impact on the others (NetMBA, 2010). The TKI has five modes of dimensions for the behaviour in which an individual may respond, these five modes explains the ways of behaviour of different individuals and the conflicts between one other. The model has two dimensions according to which the five modes can be explained. These two dimensions are the assertiveness and the cooperativeness. (Thomas Kilmann, 2017). Myers Briggs Profile The Myers Briggs profile also known as the MBTI model describes the systematic ways in which people differ from one another. The model was so developed to analyzepeoples everyday lives. The model measures have four dimensions: Energizing: it explains, from where and how people get energy. Attending: attention paid by the people when the information is gathered. Deciding: it explains, the different systems used when the decisions are made. Living: the type of life adopted. Every dimension has two poles, the very first one, the energizing reflects the orientation of the people towards the world,introversion and extroversion are the two poles of energizing dimension. The two poles of the second dimension, attending are; intuitive and sensing. The third dimensions two poles are feeling and thinking. The last dimension of the model, living has judging and perceptive as the two poles. Costa McCrae Big 5 Personality Traits The Big Five traits of personality is taken from the psychology, it includes the five domains that describes the personality. The five personality traits are used to understand the relationship between the behaviours and personality. The five traits of the Costa McCrae Big Five Personality Traits are: Openness: this trait describes the degree of curiosity, novelty preferences, creativity and the preferences of variety. Conscientiousness: this trait is a tendency for showing the self discipline, act dutifully and have aim towards achievement. It also refers to the planning, dependability and organizing in a better way. Extraversion: the trait describes the energy, sociability, showing positive emotions, assertiveness, talkativeness and the seeking stimulation from others. Agreeableness: this trait shows a compassionate and a cooperative relation towards others, not the suspicious and antagonistic nature. Neuroticism: it describes the unpleasant emotions such as, anxiety, depression, anger and vulnerability. It refers to the level of emotional stability and control of an individual (NetMBA, 2010). McClelland Needs Analysis The McClelland theory of acquired needs, also known as the three need theory or the learned theory of needs, avoids the situations of both low and high risks. The theory suggests that the needs are acquired over time and these needs are shaped by the experiences of the individuals life. The needs are classified as the achievements, affiliations and power. The following three classifications of needs influences the motivation and effectiveness in the individuals certain job functions. The achievers prefer working alone or with other high achievers. Affiliation: the high need for affiliation, need a harmonious relationship with others and feel accepted. They prefer work with significant personal interaction. Power: it can be of two types, personal and institutional, one with personal power has a directing attitude, which is undesirable. The one with the institutional power organizes the efforts of others for organizational goals. Thematic apperceptions test: this test was used as a tool for measuring the needs of different people. The test analyzes the scores for the each needs of achievement, affiliation and power. The theory implies that people with the different needs are motivated differently, the achievers with high need for achievement take very challenging projects to reach the desired goals. The feedback should be provided to them so that they gain effective motivation. The achievers for high need for affiliation shows the best performance in the cooperative environment and the high need for power seeks the opportunity to manage others (NetMBA, 2010). Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument The conflict is the natural part of interaction, this is because no two individuals have exactly the same expectations and desires. The Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument is a self scoring that is done in fifteen minutes, it has been very useful in conflict resolution assessment for more than thirty years.It measures the behaviour of the person in the conflict situation. It can be described along two dimensions, assertiveness and cooperativeness. There are five modes of responding to the conflict situation of the two dimension of behaviour, these five modes are: Competing: it is assertive and uncooperative, it is a power oriented mode, in this mode the person uses whatever power is appropriate for winning the position, the arguing ability of the person, the rank a person holds and the economic sanctions. Competing is, standing for rights, defending for a position and trying to win. Accommodating: it is unassertive and cooperative, it is completely different from competing, in this mode an individual neglects to satisfy his concerns and keeps a concern about others. Avoiding: the mode avoiding is unassertive and uncooperative, in this mode the individual is concerned about himself or herself and not of others, thus the individual does not deal with the conflict. Collaborating: this mode is both assertive and cooperative, it is totally different from avoiding, it involves the attempt of working with others to extract some solutions that would satisfy the concern. Collaborating is a form of exploring the disagreement, finding a solution to an interpersonal problem. Compromising: this mode is moderate to both assertiveness and cooperativeness, in this mode a mutual solution is acknowledged so that it satisfies the concern of both the parties. The leaders and the managers are not born but they are made, a good leader and a manager is one that has a good knowledge, experiences, patience, skills, commitment and the increases others for the achievement of the goals. The managers and the leaders are very much responsible for making the organization, a better place for the workers, a healthy environment, coordinating team that would help build a strong workforce (Mills, 2007). The critical analysis of the report for the future, as a manager and the leader can be put forward in a way for the better understanding the overall working of the organization. As a leader and manager of an organization, the leader must be technically updated, the leader much know the job and the theories that should be applied to analyze the working of the organization. There should be sense of responsibility that the managers and the leaders must have for the workers. The good character traits should be developed, so that the professional responsibility is carried out. They should keep a check on the workers behaviour and attitude, and must encourage and motivate them time to time. The managers should time to time inform the workers about the work and also consider the appropriate information regarding the ways in which the work should be done. A proper analysis of the personality test should be conducted, the personality trait that the worker may have would influence the working pattern of that worker. The leader and manager should know his or her staff very well, they should also ensure the well being of the leaders and look forward in enhancing their qualities (Mills, 2007). The very first model, the Myers Briggs profile, would help the leader and the manger to analyze the different ways by which the workers can be differentiated. It will help to analyze the various situations of everyday lives of the workers. The model is more efficient and helpful to the organizational leaders and mangers and can bring about a vast change in the working of the organization. The second model, the Big Five model of the personality trait, with its different five domains describes the various personalities of the workers, it would help the leaders and managers to acknowledge the different traits that the workers posses and the working would then make an easy way for achieving the success and organizational goals. The employees are tested on the five personality traits so that their strong trait could be acknowledged and would help in the group dynamics. The understanding of the components of personality is useful in extracting the information that would drive to understand the behaviour of the employees. These five factors are assumed to represent a basic structure and this in turn would increase the multiple periods of the research (MSG management guide, 2017). The mangers and leaders imply the three needs theory for motivating the employees, the different employees are motivated differently. The higher needs of the achievement of the employees are given a challenging task and projects, the goals can be reached easily. The employees should be given frequent feedback, so that the proper motivation is done. The higher need for affiliation employees usually perform well and are best in the cooperative environment. They have high will power and affiliate to make a better working environment for the organization too. The high need for power: the managers and the leaders should provide the power seekers the value and the opportunities to manage the organization with a better institutional power. The theory allows the needs to shape the individuals and train them by providing the essential training programs that is useful in modifying the need for ones profile (NetMBA, 2010). The Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument is used for dealing with the conflict situations, the conflicts rely on the modes and use them for the organizational practices, the conflict in the workplace is the a result of both the personal and situational agendas. The TKI measures the mix of conflicts handling. It is tool that is used by the measures and assess the typical behaviour of the employees in the conflict situations and provides a detailed information of using the five modes dimension in different situations of the conflict handling (Thomas Kilmann, 2017). Action plan using the SMART Process The letter of SMART process has different meanings: S- Specific: it specifies or targets a particular area for the improvement. M- measurable: it works as an indicator of progress. A- assignable: it specifies, the one who is most responsible for the task. R- realistic: the realistic results that can be achieved through the available resources. T- time related: the time in which the result is achieved. By using the SMART action plan the various types of goals can be achieved. The different types of goals that are required by the firm can be gained by the action plan. For example, the long-term goals, intermediate- term goals and the short- term goals. As per the analysis, the SMART process is useful in the following ways: It would make more specific implications of the theories. The action plan will ensure the certain criteria that will be beneficial in the measuring of the goals. Also the action plan makes sure that the theories used are attainable to the goals. The SMART plan ensures that the theories are relevant and appropriate. The plan is used to make the work complete on time, it ensures the deadline for the work in the firm Conclusion The organizational behaviour deals with the efficient working of the organization, it is a process of keeping the workers in an organized manner within the organization by analysing the behaviour of the individuals. The report deals with critically analysing the different theories and models to understand the behaviour, personality and different ways of working of the individuals in an organization. Using the different approaches, the concept of the four organizational theories emphasise on the different aspects and personality that the workers acquire. The analysis clearly indicates the different aspects of the workers in the organization with their working behaviour and their different personality. The various dimensions of the theories accordingly suggest the behaviour of every individual and the ways in which they differ from one another. Reference Bauer, T, Erdogan, B, 2012, An Introduction to Organizational Behavior, n.d., n.d. Mills, J, A, 2007, Organizational Behaviour In A Global Context, Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication, Canada MSG management guide, 2017, Trait Theory of Leadership, viewed on 29th of Jnauary 2017, https://www.managementstudyguide.com/trait-theory-of-leadership.htm NetMBA, 2010, McClellands theory of needs, viewed on 29th of January 2017, https://www.netmba.com/mgmt/ob/motivation/mcclelland/ NetMBA, 2010, The Big Five Personality Traits, viewed on 29th of January 2017, https://www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/organizational-behavior-5/personality-42/the-big-five-personality-traits-220-3935/ Thomas, W, K, Kilmann, H,R, 2017, An Overview of the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI), viewed on 29th of January 2017, https://www.kilmanndiagnostics.com/overview-thomas-kilmann-conflict-mode-instrument-tki

International Trade and Finance Currency Tracking Project sample for S

Question: Discuss International Trade And Finance Currency Tracking Project? Answer: Introducation: The tracking of a currency is demonstrated as the procedures of tracking bill of currency which is generally served through a site by single number through the desire to movements of tracking of banknotes that is same to pursue migrating bird through calling them. The site of tracking of currency can pursue money in the consumers of website. The serial number is entered in the website for enrollment, as well as in the event that another person has effectively enlisted the filers, then course of the bill can be demonstrated. Prior to sending, a local stamp is essential for effective movement of bill. The domestic laws issued by the nation are essential to comply with. The Euro, USD and Canadian dollar are main currencies which move (Lapstun, 2008). Currency tracking is the process in which the currencies are track with the help of website this is the process which is done by enrolling it with a serial number and the course of the bill of other person is showed. The main objectives of currency tracking includes, Lessen or dispose of instability in the U.S. Dollar estimation of University's money and money streams, and Bolster business exercises that are named in outside currency standards. Cash fences might be utilized to ensure the U.S. Dollar (USD) estimation of both remote money designated receipts and installments. Spot exchanges, for example, routine remote cash merchant installments that are at present due, are handled through Disbursements. The Treasurer's Office is in charge of remote cash when it should be held for an expanded period, an outside money designated receipt in overabundance of $25,000 is normal, or when a future exchange named in remote cash should be supported (Schneck, 2009). This started in the mid of 1990s in USA, wonder and diversion of money following rapidly feast initially to Canada as well as afterward past. Generally the charges of Euro, followers gone up against a substantially more aggressive nature and have framed groups inside their separate locales. Numerous effective locales fuse some kind of online networking, either through webpage particular interesting strategies, or through outside well known web-based social networking destinations. In the Eurozone on the grounds that numerous nations having received the Euro, this effortlessly prompts rivalry among trailers in various nations; this performs at level of state or level of area in the USA; this pays as general level in Canada (Nandi, 2013). It is lawful to check bills with ink or stamp paper in Canada. The process of stamping is not lawful in the United States in case the main objective is to condense the bill inaccurate to be re-issued; be that as it may, this is infrequently upheld and just a fine is confronted, if sentenced. Inspection is faraway success in these nations. In the Eurozone checking is not all inclusive, and changes by district. The assessment of bills is considered by the European Central Bank as l legal process (and the annihilation of them) and not restrictive to governments (Angus, 2016). Analysis of movements in exchange rates Analysis of movement in exchange rate is done by using various rate trends that are nominal bilateral rate there should be a focus on the bilateral exchange rate because US in known as the major trading partner the US$ rate is found critical in the sector of financial aspects and due to the reason of this the in and out of the capital flows and the transaction which is related to the Asian board market and Asian dollar market will made their involvement and US$ will carried out by exchange market. It means that the nominal reciprocal rate there ought to be an emphasis on the two-sided conversion standard since US in known as the real exchanging accomplice the US$ rate is discovered basic in the division of budgetary perspectives and because of the reason of this the all through the capital streams and the exchange which is identified with the Asian board market and Asian dollar market will made their inclusion and US$ will completed by trade showcase (Campa, 2013). Trend in Exchange rate has analyzed that the exchange rate is stable at the beginning but the depreciation rate is followed by the middle which shows that there is a relative stability. Then the period of fluctuation also comes and its band with the slight fluctuation. The appreciation again began again by earning and rise in dollar again continued to present. This is basically explaining 3 things the appreciation of dollar second is the steady and the strong dollar and lastly the fluctuation found in the dollar rate (Meese, 2012). The other exchange rate is the intensity which is influenced by the change. The influenced aggressiveness is because of the relative value development and significant exchanging accomplice. The information on REER that is genuine powerful conversion scale is not effortlessly accessible; the given information is imperatives which imply that the computations couldn't be conceivable this rate defines the competitiveness which is affected by the change. The affected competitiveness is due to the relative price movement and major trading partner. The data on REER that is real effective exchange rate is not easily available, the given data is constraints which means that the calculations could not be possible which means that the intensity which is influenced by the change (parsley, 2008). The influenced aggressiveness is because of the relative value development and significant exchanging accomplice. The information on REER that is genuine powerful conversion scale is not effortlessly accessible, the given information is an imperative which implies that the computations couldn't be conceivable, in this rate the calculations is done in the basis of estimation of nominal rate. This obtained by defaulting the effective nominal exchange rate using the cost of labor rather than the level of price. It has been concluded and suggested by evaluating the summary that board of trend in actual operative rate of exchange is comparable to the minimal effective rate of exchange. Here in this rate the degree of appreciation is announced as the degree of depreciation (frankel, 2001). Identifying factors affecting exchange rate movements Other that inflation and interest rate, the movement of rate of exchange is affected by numerous aspect. For determining the countrys level of economic health, one of essential aspect is rate of exchange. A vital role is played by the rate of exchange in the trade at national level, this is critical to the free economic market of world, for this purpose the exchange rate are watched most importantly. They are mostly analyzed, manipulate and govern foe economic measures. In the domestic exchange level, the rates of trade are considered most essential aspect, which is considered one of most essential aspects in all nations in the world. Generally, the rates of trade are the most observed dismembered as well as directorially organized measures of finance. Sometimes, a minor factors is greatly impacted by the rates of trade and sometimes the portfolio of financial expert is impacted by this. In this situation we considered gander at a level of actual strengths behind the adaptation scale expansions (Della, 2016). The rates of trade are decided by numerous aspects, as well as these are recognized with the association among two nations of doing exchange. The rates of trade are relative as well as are negotiable on the basis of monetary situation of exchange nations. Addition is an element of the core aspect of the scale of exchange among two nations. The association among two nations directly impact the exchange of currency and other trading terms and policies (Keynes, 2015). Some of the highly influential factors include differential in inflation the currency value is raised if the country is consistently facing the lower rate of inflation and the because of the increasing purchasing power it has been found that the countries with high inflations rates have high depreciation rate and the countries with low inflations rates have high low depreciation rate. The difference in the rates of exchange is considered another essential aspect that impact the process of trade. This indicates that costs of financing, extension as well as rates of trade are comparative linked with one another. The extension and rates of trade can be impacted by the domestic banks through management of loan charges. The money values are also impacted by the modifications in the charges of finances (Vithessonthi, 2015). The other factor which also influence the exchange rate is the term of debt which means that an elements matching the charges of fare by the charges of imports, the conditions of trade is recognized through records as well as adjustments in the payment schedule. Due to this aspect, the incomes form charged increase, which provided extended demand to the money of country as well as an extension in the esteem of the money. This directly impacts the whole process of doing fair exchange and trade among developing and developed nations (Debory, 2015). Evaluation of various economical and non-economical aspects on exchange rates A cash's level directly affects the accompanying parts of the economy: Stock exchange: This alludes to a country's global exchange, or its fares and imports. All in all terms, weaker cash will invigorate fares and make imports more costly, in this manner diminishing a country's exchange deficiency or expanding excess after some time. Then again, fundamentally more grounded money can decrease send out intensity and make imports less expensive, which can make the exchange shortage extend encourage, in the long run debilitating the cash in a self-altering instrument. However, before this happens, industry divisions that are exceptionally send out arranged can be pulverized by unduly solid money (parsley, 2008). . Capital streams: Foreign capital will tend to stream into nations that have solid governments, dynamic economies and stable monetary standards. A country needs moderately stable money to pull in venture capital from outside financial specialists. Something else, the possibility of trade misfortunes perpetrated by cash devaluation may discourage abroad speculators. Capital streams can be arranged into two primary sorts remote direct venture (FDI), in which outside speculators take stakes in existing organizations or manufacture new offices abroad; and remote portfolio speculation, where remote financial specialists put resources into abroad securities. Expansion: Degraded cash can bring about "imported" swelling for nations that are significant merchants. A sudden decay of 20% in the residential cash may bring about imported items costing 25% more since a 20% decrease implies a 25% expansion to return to the first beginning stage. Loan costs: As specified prior, the swapping scale level is a key thought for most national banks when setting money related strategy. For instance, previous Bank of Canada Governor Mark Carney said in a September 2012 discourse that the bank considers the conversion standard of the Canadian dollar in setting money related arran gement. Carney said that the persevering quality of the Canadian dollar was one reason why Canada's fiscal strategy had been "astoundingly accommodative" for so long. Solid local cash applies a delay the economy, accomplishing a similar final product as more tightly fiscal approach (i.e. higher loan fees). Moreover, additionally fixing of fiscal approach when the residential cash is as of now unduly solid may intensify the issue by drawing in more hot cash from remote speculators, who are looking for higher yielding ventures (which would additionally push up the household money (Angus, 2016). Long run behavior of the selected currencies It has been observed that there is a very significant influence of currency values on the exchange rates. It is due to the reason that with the exchange rate the balance of job that need to be done according to the equilibrium or the law of international exchange rates that majorly is responsible to provide the services that need to be considered according to the essential measure of the currency that is relative to the other currencies in order to buy or sell the staff. In addition to this, it can be stated that in the 1930 the currency yen is mainly traded against the dollar in the required digits. Moreover, it has been observed that with the immediate aftermath of the Second World War the individuals who were living in the authorities found to be prohibited in the trading of yen (Jammazi, 2012) There are only some places that can value on the yen in order to get the resume for the foreign exchange rate. In addition to this, it has been found that with the limited number of transactions that need to be delivered on the black market price. The author of the report that there is a significant impact of these variables on the financial markets, it is due to the reason that with the exceptionally high number of undervalued figures as the best guess. In addition to this, it is found that with the fixed regime rate it was analyzed that with the additional dollar impacted on the postwar of the stock exchange (Ridderstaa, 2013). There is a general collapse that needs to be fixed in the exchange rate that has been occurred in the March 1973, along with the currencies that are most required in to the leading economies in order to float the system. There is a required impact on the exchange rate that needs to be fixed for about a quarter century; along with this a period should need to be encompassed with the exceptionally extraordinary growth in the Japanese economic growth. It could not have been for the rate those free markets would be dictated. Additionally, it can be stated that with the adjustment in the floating rates that need to become the most expected one due to the increase in the exercise in order to do the tight control with the low exchange rate (Uddin, 2013). Conclusion and summary There are many aspects that need to be considered in order to address multilateral exchange rate concerns with the international monetary fund that has to be calculated with the indexes for about 17 industrial countries. In addition to this, the currencies of the other countries that are implemented in the IMF list must need to be observed that with the 300% of the 5.8% in the annual basis. In contrast, it has been observed that with the considerably less amount of the decline rate that incorporate only 6.1 percent of the yen. This denoted that in there is a significant connection between yen-dollar connection with the central value of the currency in Europe (Rehman, 2014). References Silverbrook, K., Lapstun, P. (2008).S. Patent Application No. 12/276,364. Schneck, P. A. (2009).S. Patent No. 20,090,089,168. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Nandi, S., Nadesh, R. K. (2013). A Virtual Model for Currency Tracking Using Fuzzy Inference Rule in a Unique Identity Environment.Procedia Technology,10, 628-636. Angus, R., Monaghan, A., McRobert, J., Law, N., Finnie, A. J. (2016).S. Patent No. 9,299,206. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Campa, J. M. (2013) Entry by foreign firms in the United States under exchange rate uncertainty.The Review of Economics and Statistics, 614-622. Meese, R. A., Rogoff, K. (2012). Empirical exchange rate models of the seventies: Do they fit out of sample?.Journal of international economics,14(1-2), 3-24. Parsley, D. C., Wei, S. J. (2001). Explaining the border effect: the role of exchange rate variability, shipping costs, and geography.Journal of International Economics,55(1), 87-105. Frankel, J. A. (2004).Monetary and portfolio-balance models of exchange rate determination. University of California, Berkeley, Department of Economics. Dalla Pellegrina, L., Masciandaro, D., Pansini, R. V. (2014). Do exchange rate regimes affect the role of central banks as banking supervisors?.European Journal of Law and Economics,38(2), 279-315. Keynes, J. M. (2016).General theory of employment, interest and money. Atlantic Publishers Dist. Vithessonthi, C. (2014). Monetary policy and the first-and second-moment exchange rate change during the global financial crisis: Evidence from Thailand.Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money,29, 170-194. Debroye, E., Parac-Vogt, T. N. (2014). Towards polymetallic lanthanide complexes as dual contrast agents for magnetic resonance and optical imaging.Chemical Society Reviews,43(23), 8178-8192. Lustig, H., Roussanov, N., Verdelhan, A. (2014). Countercyclical currency risk premia.Journal of Financial Economics,111(3), 527-553. Poghosyan, T. (2014). Long-run and short-run determinants of sovereign bond yields in advanced economies.Economic Systems,38(1), 100-114. Poghosyan, T. (2014). Long-run and short-run determinants of sovereign bond yields in advanced economies.Economic Systems,38(1), 100-114. Jammazi, R., Aloui, C. (2014).Cyclical components and dual long memory in the foreign exchange rate dynamics: the Tunisian case(No. 2014-198). Ridderstaat, J., Croes, R., Nijkamp, P. (2014). Tourism and Long?run Economic Growth in Aruba.International Journal of Tourism Research,16(5), 472- Ridderstaat, J., Croes, R., Nijkamp, P. (2014). Tourism and Long?run Economic Growth in Aruba.International Journal of Tourism Research,16(5), 472-487. Brahmasrene, T., Huang, J. C., Sissoko, Y. (2014). Crude oil prices and exchange rates: Causality, variance decomposition and impulse response.Energy Economics,44, 407-412.487. Uddin, G., Ozturk, I., Muzaffar, A. T., Nguyen, D. K. (2014).The time scale behavior of oil-stock relationships: what we learn from the ASEAN-5 countries(No. 2014-441). Hui, C. H., Fong, T. P. W. (2015). Price cointegration between sovereign CDS and currency option markets in the financial crises of 20072013.International Review of Economics Finance,40, 174-190. Rehman, M. (2014). Analysis of Exchange Rate Fluctuations: A Study of PKR VS USD.Journal of Managerial Sciences,8(1). Papaioannou, M. G., Park, J., Pihlman, J., Van der Hoorn, H. (2013). Procyclical behavior of institutional investors during the recent financial crisis: Causes, impacts, and challenges

System Development

Thomas Robert Malthus essays

Thomas Robert Malthus essays Thomas Robert Malthus was born in 1766 in Dorking, England, just south of London. He was the second of eight children. His father had worked with Voltaire, Rousseau, and Hume. He was privately educated by his father and by tutors when he was a child. When he was eighteen, Malthus went to Cambridge, which is a Jesuit college. Malthus became a curate of England, in Albury while at college. He took up his parochial duties in 1796. In 1805, he was selected to be the professor of Political Economy at the college at Haileybury, which is a college developed for the education of civil servants of the East India Company. For pretty much the rest of his life he remained a professor at Haileybury, which made him the worlds first academic economists. Malthus was also an author. He wrote an essay entitled Principle of Population, which outlined his views on population and how it affected the economy and general well-being of an area. His main theory was that overpopulation is mans greatest obstacle to human progress. He believed that population grows faster than food can to feed all the people being born. Actual population growth is kept in line with food supply growth by things like postponement of marriage, starvation both of which are characterized by "misery and vice". Actual (checked) population growth is kept in line with food supply growth by "positive checks" (starvation, disease and the like, elevating the death rate) and "preventive checks" (i.e. postponement of marriage, etc. that keep down the birthrate), both of which are characterized by "misery and vice". Malthus believed that people have a tendency to push population above the food supply and because of this tendency, it is pointless to try to help people in lower classes by giving them higher incomes and more food because they will keep having children and the incomes cant keep up with this. This tendency causes it to be impossible to ...

Health Systems and Healthcare Systems Coursework - 5

Health Systems and Healthcare Systems - Coursework Example Key among the roles of the government is to provide every Nigerian access to basic healthcare facilities without discrimination. In Nigeria, primary health care services are available in both the rural and urban areas. The agencies provide basic care to citizens regardless of their class or status. There are various aspects supporting the evaluation of the primary health care services in Nigeria. Primary health care services also include training on prevailing health problem and techniques of controlling and preventing the problems. It ensures proper nutrition among citizens and promotion of food supply and childcare, family planning immunization and prevention against major infectious diseases. There is significant evidence in the health promotion interventions making active enhancement of human health care. Primary healthcare also concerns the satisfaction of health- related Millennium Development Goals among the marginalized group and poor members of the population. World health organization (WHO) applies health promotion techniques to health and related social system and various risk factors including disease and health issues. Organizations are concerned with improving the quality of life by performing health promotion services. Health promotion has crucial roles to play in fostering public health policies and health -supportive environments promoting positive social conditions and skills promoting healthy lifestyles (Boman & Isiaka 2015, p.1). World health organization supports the country in improving infrastructure for organizing planning and initiating multispectral health policies and programs in Nigeria. Health system concentrates towards health promotion promotions initiatives including and their capabilities geared towards promoting health. There are advocacy and social mobilization for policy in support of health

Holocaust Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Holocaust - Essay Example While the findings of eugenic scientists were flawed, the science itself followed all the rules of the scientific method. Eugenics was considered as the cutting edge of science. Unfortunately, the scientists failed to recognize how their own prejudices were harming the results of their experiments. Most scientists, philosophers and even common man believed in the inequality of man. It was believed that certain people were "unworthy of life". The person's worth was based not just on his "worth to himself but also on his worth to the society". The handicapped and the mentally When Hitler cam to power in 1933, he had a dream of building a utopian German society. Obviously, such a utopian society could not include the handicapped and the "feeble-minded people". Hitler and the Nazis were even more radical than the eugenic scientists, in that they did not just stop at the handicapped and the feeble-minded but believed that the Gypsies and the Jews also polluted the society. Soon the scientists and the politicians were synchronized as those who opposed were fired. Hitler systematically implemented a policy of exclusion to exclude the handicapped, the Gypsies and the Jews. At first a series of legislations and laws were passed by the Nazi government to marginalize this people in the society. The Blood Protection law was passed to exclude the Gypsies and the Jews. Next a campaign was carried out to sterilize the handicapped and the feeble-minded. The first step towards the final solution began with Euthanasia or mercy killing of handicapped children. It seems that the first Euthanasia was carried out at the behest of an infant's father, who had been born with severe handicap. This first euthanasia opened the flood gates of further killings. Soon it moved from killing children to the adults. By 1939 the sterilizations had ended and the killings had started. Friedlander carefully documents the work carried out by the physicians in the T4 Operation, which proved that the killings were sponsored by the Reich. When it became difficult to kill using the Narcotics, the Nazi Germany invented the "gas chambers". In 1941, owing to public outcry, Hitler was forced to end adult euthanasia. However, his orders did not actually end the killings. In hospitals, doctors continued to carry out "racial hygiene". And when the German Army crossed the borders of Poland, the T4 physicians were called to "process" the people at the concentration camps. Friedlander has done some careful research and shows how holocaust was not just about the Jews but also included the Gypsies and the handicapped. He successfully shows that it was not anti-Semitism or personal hatred by the underlying principle of eugenics which led to the holocaust. Friedlander has resorted to a number of tables to show how

Literature On Solid Waste Management In Nigeria Environmental Sciences Essay

Literature On Solid Waste Management In Nigeria Environmental Sciences Essay Research both past and present into solid waste in Nigeria like most developing countries with an absence of adequate solid waste management system has been focused more on adequate collection and disposal options than on the waste generators, storage or even an avenue for waste reduction which aids in reuse and recycling, hence creating major gaps. These gaps are areas that need to address to ensure that there is a sustainable management of solid waste generated to prevent environmental hazards. 2.1.1 Purpose of the Literature Review This chapter review gives an overview of the situation of solid waste management in developing countries critically examining and summarising studies by various researchers in academic books, professional and academic journals, published and unpublished works and electronic media. This literature review would aid in identifying appropriate methodology to achieve the aim of this research. In addition, source separation a relatively understudied concept has been identified and recommended by many researchers as an avenue for waste reduction. It has also been suggested as providing alternative means of practicing proper waste management apart from collection and disposal. (Cointreau-Levine Gopalan, 2000:Imam et al, 2008) This study into institutional solid waste management with the aim of identifying dynamics that influence/affect separation at source at households in the campus will create a means of addressing waste reduction and proper implementation of solid waste management options. According to UNEP (2005), the logical starting point for the proper management of solid waste is to reduce the amounts of waste managed, either informally within the generators site or formally (externally) by another entity once the waste is discarded by the generator. Thereby reducing waste quantities collected or otherwise managed. 2.1.2 Literature Search The search for literature can be very time consuming and futile if proper strategies are not developed. To aid in the literature search, the following was prepared: Firstly, the topic, boundary (Developing countries: Nigeria) and problem statement was agreed on. Then I identified of the disciplines with a stake in solid waste. They include: Health, Science and Technology Waste Waste Management Environmental Urban Secondly, Keywords broad and narrow were developed. They are: Municipal Solid waste , Solid waste Management Institutional Solid Waste Separation at source , Source separation Waste segregation, separation Household solid waste manag* Participation/Incentives in solid waste Motivating factors, attitudinal behaviours Solid waste management in Nigeria University of Benin To this end, the author sought the advice of the WEDC resource centre manager. She showed me books and journals on solid waste (management) but told me that most of the journals were available online for latest on any research and my search will be more extensive using the internet. She also recommended the use of Loughborough University, search engine Metalib, for searching and interrogation of the various databases for articles and journals on the subject matter (Science direct, CSA illumina) Following her recommendation and my initial write up, a data interrogation search was done using Metalib on the following database using the keywords above, either truncated, with * or adding two keyword together using the OR because the AND was giving irrelevant data . Environmental Sciences and Pollution management Abstracts (CSA Illumina) Aqualine (CSA Illumina) Science Direct From this site, the following journals were found with relevant data. Waste Management Waste Management and Research Habitat International Environmental Management Resource, Conservation and Recycling Google Search Engine and Goggle Scholar were searched using the keywords above. The sources of information obtained include: More Journals articles from the above stated journals Solid waste Management Volume 1:United Nation Environmental Programme (UNEP) J.C Agunwanba:(Google scholar) with articles on Waste management in some parts of Nigeria The World Bank; Urban Solid Waste management (community initiatives) WEDC WELL factsheets and studies: solid waste management I chose this approach to ensure an extensive and appropriate search in all areas of solid waste management and Research into developing countries of which Nigeria is apart. My use of the Internet was to ensure that as many recent journals, conferences and researches in Nigeria are available for scrutiny. This systematic review will initially focus on identifying waste characteristics and components, then the roles and involvement of the different stakeholders, their attitudes and perspectives towards waste and finally the different concepts of source separation as it is practiced. This would help in analyzing and recognizing the past and present problems and solutions in cities and universities in developing countries especially Nigeria. The summary section would scrutinize the methodologies used in the above reviewed literature and its adaptation for use in this research. Also included are the main findings from the reviewed literature and the gaps in knowledge this research aims to address. 2.2 Solid waste management practices in Developing countries. In an attempt to accelerate the pace of its industrial development, an economically developing nation may fail to pay adequate attention to solid waste management. Such a failure incurs a severe penalty later in the form of reusable resources needlessly lost and a staggering adverse impact on the environment and on public health and safety.(UNEP, 2005) This is the problem presently facing most developing countries: rapid population growth due to rapid urban development hence more waste to manage. (Singhal Pandey, 2001) 2.2.1 Waste Generation and Composition The saying goes that if you can measure it you can manage it this is a viewpoint that is especially important and a solution that most developing countries have not been able to accomplish in solid waste management. There is no measure of the waste generated and so management becomes difficult and inefficient. According to( Vaughan , 1971), information on the composition and quantity of solid waste is indispensable to design, implementation and operation of any solid waste management system of today and helps to forecast the requirements of tomorrow. As stated above most developing countries are plagued with solid waste management problems that are degrading the urban environment and posing a serious threat to the natural resources and consequently holding back development (Sujauddin.,M., et al 2008) solving this problem will require knowledge about the per capital waste generated, composition and also attitudes towards waste. The authors found that there are many variables that affect the composition and the quantities of waste generated this include population growth, the socioeconomic factors (income, education, age, land ownership) which is the reverse for most developed countries. The major constituents of developing countries waste is about 66% organic, which is about 30% of the total waste generated showing that composting, would be a very good way of waste management (recycling). (ibid) 2.2.2 Institutional Arrangement The key institutions responsible for solid waste management services include public sector, formal private sector, informal private sector and community based non-governmental organisations. (ABC, 1988) The proper identification of their roles and responsibilities has been cited as a major influence in a sustainable solid waste management. At present, the public sector is responsible for service delivery of solid waste management in most developing countries and they are finding it difficult due to the rapid explosion in population growth hence more waste to manage. Some major problems that affect the municipalities inadequacy to provide good solid waste system include poor planning, lack of experienced staff, inappropriate equipments and technology, insufficient funds and landfill sites for disposal.( Coad, 2005: Hossain Siwar 2002). Collection, transportation and disposal have been a major problem in delivering efficient solid waste management services. In India cities collection efficiency is between 40 -70 % due to inadequate transport capacity and deficient workforce even with the municipalities allocation of 85-90% of the total budget to the service (Nema, 2004: Sharholy et al 2008) To rectify this inadequacy and provide better services some sources have recommended institutional changes like privatization transferring of the responsibilities to private sector while the public sector deals with policies and regulations (Hossain Siwar, 2002: Cointreau-Levine et al, 2000: World Bank,2003). The authors have argued that privatization will reduce the burden on government, increase the efficiency and effectiveness of municipal solid waste (MSW) services, decreases costs, source reduction and improve recycling thereby reducing the waste that goes for final disposal and increasing the life cycle of disposal sites. They also state that this can only work with sustainable frameworks supported by viable government policies and regulations. Poor solid waste management creates serious threat to human health and well-being especially with indiscriminate open dumping which clogs drains and sewerage creating breeding grounds for rodents and insects leading to disease spread and ground water contamination.( Majani,2000:Gonzenbach. Coad, 2007: Kumar et al, 2009) To aid in proper solid waste management certain cities have set rules (Bennagen et al ,2002: Sarkhel Banerjee, 2009) to necessitate the mandatory segregation of waste at generators level and also the concordance between collection and disposal facilities to ensure the establishment of local recycling and composting plants. The study showed that households were ready to participate and their participation would increase if there was going to be regular collection, variable user charges and appropriate garbage collection i.e. not collecting both recyclables and other waste in the same vehicle. (Bennagen et al., 2002) Informal Sector The role of the informal sector (waste pickers, scavengers, sweepers) in solid waste management is identified as been crucial in waste reduction though to what amount it cannot be effectively determined.(Wilson et al , 2006). Most of their activities are driven by the need to supplement income and to reduce poverty. They operate at all levels in the solid waste chain from generation to disposal removing the recyclables and trading it. These waste pickers with organisation and support would create jobs for the minority in the society, reduce poverty, save municipalities money, improve industrial competitiveness, conserve natural resources and protect the environment. The government in many developing countries: Argentina, Brazil, India, Uruguay, Colombia, Mexico have identified the necessities of recognising and identifying this stakeholders especially in light of attaining Goal 7 of the millennium development goals thereby creating an inclusive, socially desirable, economically viabl e and environmentally sound solid waste management system. Waste pickers activities are recognised for their role in reducing the waste to be collected transported and disposed e.g. Jakarta 25% reduction. (Medina, 2008) 2.2.3 Attitudes and Preferences Attitude is termed in this study as the feeling and thoughts while perception is insight and awareness which encourages participation. To ensure the sustainability of any SWM system there has to be a change of government perception to that of recognising the importance of people. The current global challenges of urban solid waste (Ali, 2006(Ed)) states demand a people centred approach, change in public attitude to consumption and increased relationship between the people and the government. With new approaches to waste management to tackle the challenges of the increased waste generated by the population, increased cost of waste management leads to increase user charges. This (ibid) stated will only be sustainable if the government recognises the importance of people in planning, designing and operating any solid waste system. Bisson (2002) stated that since waste is a product of human behaviour, to maintain a good waste management we need information on the behaviour and attitude of people with regard to waste and accurate data on waste generation Source separation and other recycling practices at households is greatly supported in its role to reduction of waste, municipality costs but in practice might not be successful because of the understanding of funds and the workload involved. (Chung S.S C.S Poon, 1996: Ghorbani et al, 2007). The authors concluded that economic incentives as well as education about environmental benefits of waste separation by householders would result in active participation of people in separating wastes in the home. Chung S.S C.S Poon (1996) further found that consumption rate might increase if waste is recycled hence education awareness programs. They suggested that the involvement of all household members and not only the housewives, binary not multiple separation schemes will further increase its success rate. One likely consequence of households paying close attention to their refuse is that people will become more aware of the waste they generate and will become less wasteful thus saving resources and further reducing collection costs. (Kassim, 2006) Various authors (Bennagen., June 2002: Sujauddin.,M., et al 2008) have reported that there is an eagerness for communities to participate in solid waste management schemes, pay for services but the payment should not be unit but as per user and with government support. 2.2.4 Source Separation Source separation according to GDRC (n.d) is the setting aside of compostable and recyclable materials from the waste stream before they are collected with other MSW, to facilitate reuse, recycling, and composting. During the UN conference in Johannesburg in 2002 reduction of waste through source separation was affirmed as one of the steps, which the local government can implement to maximize environmental sound waste use, recycling and diversion of useful materials from the waste stream. Facing the problems of solid waste management, (Strange, K 2002: UNEP, 2005) argues can be done through plans and programs which encourage source separation and this he stated will help in minimising waste for disposal. Schà ¼beler et al (1996) further added that the introduction of source separation ought to be in a pragmatic and incremental manner beginning with pilot activities to access and encourage the interest and willingness of users to participate. In most developing countries, the practice of source separation is by the informal sector at a very small scale. In cities of developing countries, source separation provides a means of employment, reduces the total amount of waste for disposal, and at landfills through the support of governing bodies and community based organisation (Lardinios Furedy, 1999: Fehr et al, 2009) Waste separation increases the quality of produced compost and recyclables, and optimizes incineration. It also enables better financing of waste management activities and minimizes the energy and labour inputs to any downstream processes (Murray, 1999). Source-separation pilot programs have been tested in some developing countries but total recovery of recyclables have been hindered due to the large amount of water contents in the waste and high percentage of food waste food waste (Zhuang et al,2007: Tadesse., 2008), The motivations for materials separation and reuse in developing countries include: scarcity or expense of virgin materials; the level of absolute poverty; income supplement, the frugal values of even relatively well-to-do households; and the large markets for used goods and products made from recycled plastics and metals. (UNEP, 2005: Sarkhel Banerjee, 2009: Fehr et al, 2009) Fehr et al (2009) further recommended the introduction of legal instruments within a municipal model that mandate source separation and encourages educational and legal measures for solid waste management success. (Joseph, 2006; Zhuang et al, 2007: Fehr et al, 2009 agree that any source separation program needs people centred participation, monitoring, awareness creation and support. Below are some of the advantages of source separated over co-mingled waste Table 1 Separate/mixed collection Separate Collection Mixed Collection Extends landfill life. Removes potential recyclables from the waste stream. Lowers net disposal costs. Done by the household. No extra cost for the community. Highly applicable to residential waste. Industrial waste may be recycled through industrial waste exchanges. An effective and reliable tool for recycling. Can be implemented on small-scale, then expanded. Recyclables are usually uncontaminated by garbage and other debris It is not time or space consuming for the residents. The facility does not need additional space to handle recyclables. Basic technology is needed The effectiveness of the collection system does not depend on how people prepare recyclables. There is no need for established secondary markets Guidelines for Municipal Solid Waste Management in the Mediterranean Region ( ) 2.2.5 Solid waste practices in universities of developing countries Higher institutions have the responsibility of having high moral and ethical obligation to the environment because they are expected to produce leaders in environmental protection movement. Armijo de Vega (2008) research acknowledges the good use of campuses as a case study for solid waste management (SWM) options for the following reasons; Not much has not been reported on the topic, They been independent to a great extent, campuses can accommodate pioneering SWM approaches that can filter down to other communities later, Thirdly, since it involves students at various levels it can serve to sensitize as well as easily train them in good SWM practices, and Finally, SWM practices adopted by higher education institutions have a great potential of being adopted by surrounding communities because these institutions generally are held in high esteem. The efforts towards responsible waste management should stem from these institutions. Besides, appropriate waste management would bring benefits to the institution such as a reduction of the financial resources destined to waste management, but, above all, it would set an example to the students and the community. (Mbuligwe .2002: Maldonado, 2006) Furthermore the authors discovered that the type of waste generated on campus (recyclables and organic) provides a lot of avenue for reuse, recycling and recovery thereby reducing the quantity of waste disposed in landfill by more than 60%.(ibid) 2.3 Solid waste management Practices in Nigeria 2.3.1 Waste Composition Nigeria is a nation that exemplifies chronic solid waste management problems in conjunction with population growth. It is the most populous country in Africa, with over 120 million residents (World Bank 1996), and over the past 50 years, has had the third largest urban growth rate in the world at 5.51% annually (UNWUP 1999). In Nigeria though there has been some studies into the determination of waste composition and generation to enhance the provision of solid waste management services, this studies are outdated (Adedibu 1985) or have been done at the landfills (Mbuligwe., 2002). This does not take into consideration the quantities of waste that are separated by the waste pickers and animals before collection. (Ogwueleka, 2009: Iman et al 2008 ) agree that indistinctive legislative policies and regulation, lack of data on the generated waste, inappropriate technology for collection and disposal, no planned framework and inadequate population characteristics are some of the factors affecting the knowledge of municipal solid waste composition in Nigeria to develop better disposal methods. Other factors include political, economic and social. The majority of substances composing municipal solid waste include paper, vegetable matter, plastics, metals, textile, rubber and glass (Ogwueleka, 2009:Imam., 2008). They found that the major component of solid waste is organic waste (40-64%) which is wetter, corrosive with high density (Ogwueleka, 2009)and agree that composting will be an adequate solid waste practice to reduce the waste especially (Iman et al 2008) with the removal of government subsidies for the sale of fertilizers creating a market for it. Controlled landfill (Adedibu, 1985) stated is another SWM option for disposal. This is not recommendable because of the complex technology and funds which the government cannot provide. Efficient recycling and composting could save 18.6% in waste management costs and 57.7% in landfill cost (Agunwamba, 1998). Waste characteristics vary according to season, population, climate, and industrial production, the size of markets for waste materials and the extent of urbanization, effectiveness of recycling, and work reduction. (Ogwueleka, 2009). Other factors affecting increased waste generation among residents in Nigeria cities are change in social economic and educational circumstance. 2.3.2 Attitudes and Perceptions According to (Agunwamba, 2003: Iman et al 2008) public awareness, social ideals, beliefs and attitudes to waste can affect all stages in the solid waste management process. This has an impact on household waste storage, waste segregation, recycling, collection frequency, littering and fly-tipping (illegal dumping), willingness to pay for waste management services, and the level and type of opposition to waste treatment and disposal facilities. In Nigeria, the general public attitude towards waste management is poor. . A man may live in a neatly kept house but refuse to cooperate with his fellow residents in keeping the surroundings of the building clean. As long as the waste materials are not inside his house, he feels no concern. Government attitude towards solid waste management is the introduction of in appropriate technology without the consultation of the people using the services (Agunwamba, 1998). In addition, they consider the informal sector a menace (Ogwueleka, 2009) and try all means to eradicate them. Most Nigerians associated wealth with lavish spending, which generates much waste as a by-product. They perceive waste pickers/workers as poor and so make little or no effort to cooperate in waste management activities. Similarly, in homes waste removal to bins classified as childrens work. Since the bins were not designed with, their small stature wastes are dumped on the ground, creating more work for the waste workers and increasing collection time reducing efficiency. (ibid) As for the waste workers, poor remuneration and stagnation in promotion has created a reduced interest in proper solid waste management. They go about doing their jobs haphazardly. The poor attitude to waste been exhibited can be changed with proper enlightenment programs and patient extension efforts that are reinforced continuously even after project completion. This will negate ignorance, materialistic tendencies, and apathy and reinforce their responsibility to the environmental. (Agunwamba, 1998) 2.3.3 Institutional Arrangement With knowledge of the illegal dumping of toxic waste in June 1988, (Adegoroye., 1994) the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) was created. The landmark Federal legislation on environmental protection in Nigeria was the decree Number 58 of 1988, which established the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA). The specific role of FEPA with respect to solid waste management is to (Onibokun, 1999): Study the most reliable systems that are appropriate for local, domestic and industrial wastes. Specify waste disposal and treatment methods that take into consideration the geological and environmental setting and encourage recycling. Specify waste disposal sites that guarantee the safety of surface and underground water systems. Set up and enforce standards for adequate sanitary facilities for the disposal of human and other solid wastes in dwellings, housing estates and public facilities in both urban and rural areas. Establish monitoring programmes including periodic surveillance of approved waste disposal sites and their surroundings and waste water systems. Establish monitoring stations for the control of the disposal of leachate from dumpsites into surface water and groundwater systems Under this Act, all states and local government set up their own environmental protection body for the protection and improvement of the environment within its jurisdiction. In 1999 (Ogwueleka, 2009), FEPA was taken over by the Federal Ministry of Environment to combat some of the challenges faced which include absence of pollution waste management laws, lack of environmental enforcement, funding, role conflicts power play between FEPA workers and some powerful individuals whose companies not ready to pay for services. It still conformed to all the regulation stated above but even with this change of hands, there was still inadequate provision of solid waste services in Nigeria. According to (Imam et al, 2008: Ogwueleka, 2009) solid waste management in Nigeria is characterised by in efficient collection methods, insufficient coverage of the collection system and improper disposal. Lack of institutional arrangement, insufficient funds absence of standards and by-laws, insufficient information on waste composition and quantity, inflexible work schedule and inappropriate technology transfer are the common constraints faced by environmental agencies in solid waste management.75-95% of the revenue of solid waste is spent on collection and disposal and only 40-70% is collected from the urban areas. Most of the rural areas have no SWM facility. Presently emphasis is been focused on better institutional arrangement through privatization and less on collection and disposal due to the inadequate government service delivery. Privatization is been tested in cities like Abuja (Imam., 2008), Lagos (Ogwueleka, 2009) and Benin (Ogu., 2000) but have not improved the service delivery due to all the factors above including corruption, lack of planning of route service delivery, affordability and acceptability. Finally, (Ogwueleka, 2009) argued that since in Nigeria there is an abundance of cheap labour the use of a low capital cost and labour intensive solution that reduces poverty will be preferred. It should include low technology like handcarts and pickup trucks for collection, informal sector involvement (waste pickers), training, local waste recycling and reduction projects, transfer stations to reduce operating cost, community participation and involvement. In conclusion Adegoreyo, (1994) stated that stable leadership and firm commitment of government in formative years to any enforcement programme with set goals, objectives and responsibilities including capacity building should be uttermost to ensure the improvements. 2.3.4 Source Separation Studies into source separation in Nigeria though it is highly relevant according to most researchers are not been preformed. (Onibokun., 1999: Ogu., 2000: Agunwamba, 2003).This has constrained the author to review literature of other developing countries, implementation methods and success rate of source separation to infer if it will adequate for Nigeria. The scavengers do little or no form of recycling it is more of reuse. (Agunwamba, 2003) Informal Practices In Nigeria, gifts of clothes and goods to relatives, charities, and servants as a means of source separation are significant in waste reduction. However, the greatest amount of materials recovery is achieved through the following: (a) Itinerant waste buyers (IWBs): These are waste collectors who often go from door-to-door, collecting specific recyclable materials and/or organic wastes from households, which they buy or barter. Individual IWBs tend to specialize in one or two kinds of materials. (b) Street waste picking: Secondary raw materials recovered from mixed waste found on streets or extracted from communal bins before collection. (c) Municipal waste collection crew: Secondary raw materials recovered from vehicles transporting waste to disposal sites. (d) Waste picking from dumps: Waste pickers/ scavengers sort through waste before it is covered at the site of final disposal, which is still generally open dumping in Nigeria. (Wilson et al, 2009) From the point of view of waste reduction, the traditional practices of repair and reuse, and the sale, barter, or gift-giving of used goods and surplus materials are an advantage to the poorer countries. Quantities of inorganic post-consumer wastes entering the MSW stream would be higher if these forms of waste reduction did not exist.(UNEP,2005) Formal Practices. There is no formal practice in place for source separation at present although Federal Ministry of Environment (2000) specified in the Blue print for municipal solid waste management (MSWM) in Nigeria that separation at source is one of the viable alternatives/complement to an integrated solid waste management programme. 2.3.5 Solid waste practices in universities in Nigeria 2.4 Solid waste practices in University of Benin, Benin-City Solid waste management in the university is the collection and disposal of waste. The waste generated is placed in bins for collection. There is no informal sector to do any separation though some of the waste workers salvage the useful recyclables for reuse but this does not even account for up to 1% of the total amount generated. Most times the waste generated is so much that not all the waste is removed during collection so decomposition begins on the left over waste, which will cause bad odours and breeding grounds for rodents and disease carrying insects. Some leachates are also produced which might pollute the land and water around. The final disposal site for the waste is an open dump that allows further pollution because there is no control over waste deposited or the by-products of open dump disposal. Without adequate attention, there is a major risk to the health of the staff and students in the university and to the environment. 3. Summary of Literature Review 3.1 Methodologies Most of the researches into waste characterization were studied using quantitative and qualitative methods (questionnaires, interviews, observation, focus groups and fieldwork) this is to ensure the viability of the studies and close the loop (Chung S.S Poon C.S.,1996: Ghorbani M. et al , 2007:Imam., 2008). For sampling, random sampling was employed since some information about the sample space is known